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Country Operational Strategy - Cambodia : II. Overview of Development Issues
B. Postconflict Issues1. Demilitarization22. Effective demilitarization of Cambodian society involves both security sector reform and demobilization. It is the latter that has tended to be the focus of attention. Yet it is clear that the military and police forces have contributed to the lawlessness, insecurity, and fear of violence that pervade Cambodia. The involvement of the military in the overexploitation of the nation's forest resources is well documented.14 Press reports have linked security personnel to other abuses in fisheries, national heritage sites, and demined land. Military units routinely involve themselves in internal security matters and interfere in the dispensation of justice. Human rights abuses are common. Violence and banditry are sufficiently pervasive that the international community considers some parts of the country as areas in which travel is unsafe. 23. The culture of impunity for the powerful, strong-arm justice, and violent dispute resolution must be altered if security is to improve. Thus, it is important that, together with the well-publicized plans for demobilization, the Government make efforts to reintroduce a culture of professionalism in the security forces. The Government, with assistance from the Australian military, was preparing a white paper on Cambodia's future defense needs in early 2000. This is an important first step toward the modernization of the security forces and the cessation of military and police involvement in private enterprise pursuits. A reform agenda will need to involve a clear separation of duties and ensure that each force has the trained personnel and equipment necessary to accomplish those newly defined duties. 24. The heavily discussed plan to cut about 50,000 of some 150,000 soldiers was still being finalized in early 2000. The plan involves a four-step process of (i) registration of soldiers to develop a planning and control database, (ii) disarming and discharging identified soldiers, (iii) reinsertion into civilian life through the provision of a basic basket of goods, and (iv) reintegration into civil society through an enhanced package of social services. Scheduled for pilot testing in 2000, the demobilization plan is likely to require substantial support from the international community and to involve a lengthy and complex process of implementation. The Government completed the registration process in 1999, cutting 15,551 "ghost" solders from the payroll, as well as 163,346 "ghost" dependents in the process. The program will transfer responsibility for 9,433 widows to the Ministry of Women's and Veteran's Affairs (MWVA) and demobilize 31,500 over the period 2000-2002, leaving military strength at just under 100,000. 2. Governance25. Poor governance and the frequent absence of the rule of law robs the ordinary Cambodian citizen of basic human rights, an equal opportunity to pursue and accumulate wealth through private enterprise, and an equitable share of the benefits of the country's endowments. Aid agencies, private investors, and government officials agree that a lack of strong institutions of governance is a fundamental constraint to sustainable economic development in Cambodia. The long period of conflict left Cambodia dominated by powerful groups that often operate outside the law with impunity. The justice system is susceptible to political influence and does not in practice afford citizens equal access to the law. Elite groups often receive differential access to public services, national resources, and business opportunities. Public servants are generally poorly paid and exhibit low productivity. Public administration is inefficient. Tax evasion is prevalent and domestic revenue collection is poor. Corruption is widespread in all branches of government. Thus, despite the existence of potentially large sources of revenue such as forest product royalties, public spending on social services is a pittance compared with expenditures on security. 26. The Government is addressing these issues on many levels. Since the present government coalition was formed in late 1998, the Supreme Council of State Reform has been set up to supervise five councils charged with reforming the armed forces, public administration, economic and financial policies, and the law and justice system. There was substantial progress in 1999, but much work remains. Some "ghost" workers were cut from the civil service payroll, and plans were under way for a civil service census, computerized payroll, downsizing, and functional review of all ministries. Possibilities for setting up a core group of civil servants in essential functions were being investigated. 27. A substantial reform effort is directed at increasing domestic resource mobilization, increasing the efficiency of public spending, and increasing public spending in the social sector, as well as in nonwage recurrent expenditures. A VAT has been successfully implemented, tax and customs exemptions cut back, and a crackdown on illegal logging is under way. In the area of law and justice, however, increases in the crimes of armed robbery, kidnapping and homicide have been reported. The Ministry of Law and Justice has prepared a master plan to strengthen the capabilities and independence of the judiciary. Appendix 1 addresses issues of governance in Cambodia in more detail. 3. Demographic Issues28. Cambodian history shaped demographics to a substantial degree. Because of the decimation of the population during the Khmer Rouge years and the baby boom that came after, the population of Cambodia is very young; in 1995, 45 percent of the population was under 15. As a consequence, a high dependency ratio is common, particularly in poor households. Moreover, the population is growing rapidly at about 2.5 percent. This implies that the labor force is going to increase rapidly as the baby boomers come of age, increasing by as much as 165,000 per year over the next five years. At the same time, returned refugees, demobilized security forces, and redundant civil servants will further swell the ranks of the labor force. Because of the declining fertility rate, however, dependency ratios should begin to fall. If the economy can absorb these extra workers without sacrificing productivity, substantial reductions in poverty are possible. 4. Vulnerable Groups29. As a result of Cambodia's history of conflict and the disintegration of social order, large groups of the population are at risk of deprivation for various reasons, including a lack of access to basic social services, economic assets, political representation, as well as low social status. Together these groups represent a large portion of the Cambodian population. As already discussed in the poverty profile, nearly 40 percent of the population is afflicted with poverty. Such pervasive poverty requires a broad-based approach to poverty reduction. However, certain characteristics of poverty in Cambodia require special attention. Moreover, extra effort may be required to ensure that certain groups have access to the opportunity to lead productive lives. The Government's 1997 First Socioeconomic Development Plan 1996-2000 (SEDPI) outlines a strategy for addressing the problems of the most vulnerable. The SEDPI emphasizes prevention of vulnerability through capacity building at the community level for identification of and assistance to those most at risk. 30. As in many countries, access or ownership rights to natural resources, including land tenure and titling, is a difficult problem in Cambodia. Because the Government freely distributed small plots of land in 1979, landlessness is not believed to be widespread. The average farm family has about 1 hectare (ha) of land, which is small relative to the optimal size of about 2 ha that is considered efficient for one-yoke draft animal use. Landlessness appears to be increasing, however, because only 10 percent of landholders have been granted temporary legal title to the land. This limits their ability to access credit. It also leaves them vulnerable to eviction by powerful interests that exploit weak governance to secure possession of valuable tracts of forest and agricultural lands. A critical aspect of the Government's program of poverty reduction (or rather poverty prevention), then, will be a transparent and equitable process of land titling. 31. In addition to those who have been evicted by powerful interests and those who have lost their land because of indebtedness, others are landless because of displacement. This group includes the refugees returning from the Khmer Rouge camps on the border with Thailand, or after long military service either in the Khmer Rouge or government armed forces. The landless are particularly at risk of economic hardship and food insecurity. Efforts to ensure allocation of mine-cleared land to these groups have had limited success as powerful interests snap up valuable land. Improved governance in the allocation of recovered lands and the vast government holdings is essential to improving the prospects of the landless. 32. Children are one of the most vulnerable groups in Cambodian society, as evidenced by the child mortality rates. Cambodia's 1997 under-five mortality rate, as reported in the 1999 UN HDR, was the highest in Asia at 167 per 1,000 live births. A major underlying factor is malnutrition. Over 50 percent of children under five are underweight and micronutrient deficiencies are common. Poor children, children from single-headed households, and orphaned and abandoned children who survive early childhood are particularly vulnerable to exploitation as child labor, to sexual exploitation, and to other forms of abuse. They are also more likely to be denied access to basic education and health care. Large numbers of children are disabled because of accidents due to land mines, polio, and cerebral palsy. There are also large numbers of street children in the cities of Phnom Penh and Battambang. Reducing the incidence of premature death is primarily a matter of reducing poverty and, to a lesser extent, to improving nutrition and basic health care. Reducing the incidence of exploitation is again primarily a matter of poverty reduction and the strengthening of institutional safeguards. 33. In 1997 it was estimated that Cambodia had a disabled population of 203,000 or 2.2 percent. Of these, 132,000 were males and 71,000 were females, with 81.5 percent living in rural areas. Illness or disease has been the principal cause of disability in both rural and urban areas. Disabilities caused by land mine explosions were reported as 6.7 percent of total disabilities in urban areas and 10.7 percent in rural areas. By type of disability, amputation of one or more limbs was the most prevalent, with blindness being the second most prevalent form. In Phnom Penh there are higher numbers of those who have mental disabilities. Several NGOs are active in assisting the disabled, for example, through provision of prosthetics. But, judging by the prevalence of disabled beggars frequenting tourist locations, the level of services is inadequate. In a country at such a low stage of economic development, the inability to engage in physical labor is a serious handicap. Over the long term, of course, general poverty reduction and income growth should reduce the burden of the disabled population on society. Moreover, the Government and the international community have long placed an emphasis on the eradication of mines to prevent further tragedies. 34. Other vulnerable populations include the frail elderly and victims of HIV/AIDS.15 In Cambodia, old age is often considered to commence at the age of 45 years. There is no universal social security system, so the frail elderly must depend on family and community networks for assistance. In 1998 it was estimated that 180,000, or 3.7 percent, of the sexually active population (15-49 years of age) were HIV-positive. Current estimates give 6,000 AIDS sufferers. The epidemic is expanding and is primarily heterosexually transmitted. These people do not have adequate access to health care and are frequently abandoned by their families and society once their HIV status is known. Eradicating poverty will enable families and communities to assist these populations more easily, while preventive measures are needed to halt the spread of HIV/AIDS. 5. Gender Issues in Cambodia35. In traditional Khmer society, a woman is generally subordinate to her husband but retains close ties with and support from her kinsmen. However, three decades of conflict have disrupted traditional family life, leaving women with less protection and support. Some of the most vulnerable groups now are households headed by women and older women who have no family and no means of support. There are significant areas of gender disparity in Cambodia, particularly in educational attainment and income. The literacy rate for women in rural areas is 55 percent compared with 80 percent for men. Girls also tend to drop out of school earlier because they start work earlier or because secondary schools are far from home. 36. Women suffer from both wage and nonwage discrimination. Men earn 33 percent more for equivalent work, and dominate the private and public corridors of power. Prostitution and domestic violence are serious social problems, with an average of 42 percent of sex workers HIV-positive in 1998. Perhaps the most serious problem for women in Cambodia is the poor quality of reproductive health. The relatively new MWVA is already taking steps to increase awareness of the need to address gender inequality in Cambodia. Appendix 2 addresses gender issues in more detail. ____________________
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