Catalog

	Table of Contents
p. 13 of 20 BACK | NEXT I. Introduction II. The Context: Fisheries in the Asian and Pacific Region III. The Bank's Experience in the Fisheries Sector IV. The Issues: Challenges and Opportunities A. Economic Issues B. Environmental Issues C. Policy and Institutional Issues D. The Outlook V. The Recommended Strategy for the Bank

Policy on Fisheries : IV. The Issues: Challenges and Opportunities

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B. Environmental Issues

As a part of the wider consciousness of the linkage between environment and development, increasing attention has been given in the last decade to the issue of sustainable development. FAO defines sustainable development, of which fisheries and aquaculture are integral parts, as "the management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development in agricultural, forestry and fisheries sectors concerns land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable, and socially acceptable."¹⁹ These concerns were addressed by UNCED in 1992, and have since dominated discussions on the strategies for sustainable resource management and aquatic biodiversity conservation.

Despite the growing awareness and concern, coastal and other aquatic ecosystems continue to be degraded by pollution and unsound forms of utilization. These negatively impact on fisheries as shallow-water fish habitats such as mangroves, seagrass beds, coral reefs, estuaries, bays, rivers, lakes, and swamps are biologically the most productive and the most ecologically diverse aquatic environments. These are important fish breeding and nursery grounds, where many species reproduce. The barriers on most major rivers in the region, such as dams, weirs, and hydropower structures, also have a major impact on migratory species that swim upriver to spawn. The major disturbances causing aquatic species' decline and potential extinction include habitat loss and degradation, overexploitation, the spread of exotic species, pollution, and climatic change.²⁰ Degradation of the ecosystems is caused by activities both within and outside of the fishery sector.

Coral Reef Degradation and Loss of Intertidal Areas and Wetlands

The coastal ecosystem provides an important habitat for aquatic resources in the extensive mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, and bays. The biodiversity of coral reefs is very high, rivaling that of tropical rainforests. The productivity of coral reef systems is also very high; however, these are fragile ecosystems that are easily degraded by siltation, eutrophication, contamination by pollutants, physical damage, and overexploitation, all of which have negative effects on productivity. An estimated 60 percent of Southeast Asian coral reefs have been either destroyed or severely degraded. In the reef-rich archipelagic nations of Indonesia and the Philippines, reefs are threatened by hazardous and destructive harvesting practices such as dynamite, cyanide, and muro-ami fishing (herding of fish into giant nets while banging numerous rocks across the top of a coral reef). Coral reefs are in serious jeopardy in the Gulf of Thailand from pollution and sedimentation stemming primarily from rivers. On the southern and western coasts of Sri Lanka, coral reefs are estimated to be disappearing at the rate of 10 percent annually.²¹ The mangrove ecosystem has diverse functions, all of which benefit people; the marine tidal forests protect tidal communities from floods and provide nutrient-rich nursery areas for aquatic species. However, mangroves, intertidal areas, and wetlands are being steadily reduced by indiscriminate extraction and large-scale conversion to other uses, including for fishponds and agriculture. In the Philippines, some estimates suggest that as much as 65 percent of the original 450,000 ha of mangrove area has been converted to other uses, primarily brackishwater fishponds. In Indonesia, large areas of mangroves in populous islands such as Java and Bali have been converted. Conversion to agricultural land is more common in countries with high population density and limited arable land, e.g., Fiji and India. Extensive conversion to ponds has also occurred in Malaysia, Thailand, and Viet Nam.²²

One of the greatest concerns with conversion is the loss of mangrove biological productivity and fish nursery areas, and the resulting effect on coastal fisheries and communities. Reliable data on the economic value of a hectare of mangrove forest are difficult to develop because of the many indirect benefits, but the low level of production from large areas of converted ponds in many areas of Indonesia and the Philippines suggests that when losses to capture fisheries and wood production are considered, these areas may represent a net loss to the economic system. Unregulated conversion often results in the loss of all mangrove benefits with no corresponding gains.

Reclamation of the coastal zone for residential, commercial, and industrial uses has been ongoing in rapidly developing economies such as those of Hong Kong and Singapore, as well as in the urban centers of some DMCs. The development of the coastal zone is inevitable, considering its multiple uses. However, in fragile ecosystems, any form of development should be carefully assessed to avert irreversible negative consequences. Where development may still be viable, an extended and comprehensive cost-benefit analysis of alternative uses should be carried out first. The environmental impacts of development in both the short and long run should be quantified.

Destructive Fishing Methods

The use of dynamite to kill fish and toxic chemicals to capture either live or dead fish is a common practice in artisanal fisheries in some DMCs. The industry subsector has often employed very effective but destructive fishing gear and techniques. An example is the use of large-scale pelagic driftnets in the high seas, which also kill many juvenile fish and nontarget species including marine mammals. Promoting the use of selective gear and discouraging destructive fishing methods should be pursued through a system of incentives and penalties. Information and education about safe fishing methods should be disseminated. In the live-fish trade for food and for ornamentals, sanctions should be imposed on the use of poisonous chemicals. Eco-labelling and verification schemes, and consumer awareness, can be powerful means of promoting responsible fishing.

Negative Impacts of Aquaculture

Some forms of coastal and inland aquaculture have imposed costs on the environment, on fish and human health, and on biodiversity. Intensive farming in ponds, pens, or cages produces organic matter that settles to the bottom of the pond or pen, or below the cages. Some of the suspended waste matter from excessive artificial feeding, fish excreta, and the application of chemicals is flushed out of the enclosures and pollutes adjacent waterways. The aquaculture subsector itself has suffered from such pollution. The decline of intensive shrimp farming in Taipei,China, has been attributed to massive mortality from the reuse of polluted water discharged from ponds. Intensive shrimp farming has also had significant negative environmental impacts in PRC, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In some instances, aquaculture has affected biodiversity through competition between indigenous species and introduced species that have escaped into the wild and produced self-sustaining populations. Legislation may be necessary to regulate the disposal of aquaculture wastes and thereby contain pollution from aquaculture. Environmentally sound technologies for more intensive aquaculture need to be developed and popularized into sound farm management practices. The challenge is to ensure that aquaculture development is integrated into social and environmental systems, in balance with other existing or potential users of common resources.

Pollution of Water Bodies

The oceans and all bodies of water are the global sinks for many pollutants from both land-based (e.g., mine tailings, untreated domestic effluents, and sediments from soil erosion) and water-based (e.g., oil spills and waste from shipping) industries. Almost all forms of water pollutants diminish the capacity of water bodies to support aquatic life if they reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen. Chemicals in polluted waters also affect fish populations adversely. Some river systems in major urban centers in some DMCs have been declared biologically dead. The contamination of aquatic species with pollutants, primarily with sewage and toxic substances, and the occurrence of toxic algal blooms have also rendered them unfit for human consumption. Intrasectoral interactions in the coastal zone should be considered in fisheries planning activities. The coastal zone, which is the usual geographic planning unit, should be expanded to include the whole watershed and include terrestrial activities that directly affect coastal fisheries such as logging and mining in the uplands.

Half the world's population, and over 70 percent in Southeast Asia, live in coastal regions. This indicates the intense pressure that competing demands for and multiple use of resources place on the coastal aquatic ecosystems. Efforts are needed to identify and evaluate the externally generated impacts on fishing resources and coastal aquatic ecosystems, and the internally generated impacts that have downstream effects, and to devise the appropriate interventions for integrated coastal fisheries management (ICFM).²³ ICFM recognizes externally generated changes or changes caused by the use of resources outside the fishery sector but that have an impact upon it, and internally generated changes or changes that originate from actions inside the fishery sector and have an impact within it and/or outside it. ICFM thereby develops interactions between the fishery sector and other sectors or interests, to anticipate or resolve conflict and develop synergies and opportunities, e.g., for the development of alternative employment opportunities.

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